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第四节 一般例外(第1页)

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第四节一般例外

一、概述

WTO一般例外规则的目的,在于为成员方基于特殊事由而无法履行WTO协议提供一个合法的依据。考虑到WTO协议在性质上属于“一揽子接受”的范畴,为成员方提供一个一般例外规则,无疑可以使得WTO法律体系兼具完整性和灵活性,更能为世界范围内的广大国家所接受。

WTO的一般例外规则即GATT第20条。该条分为前言(preamble)和单项例外两个部分,其中前言主要规定各个单项例外措施在适用方式上的要求。[1]第20条的具体规定如下:

ArticleⅩⅩ:Geions

&herequirementthatsuchmeasuresarenotappliedinamannerwhichwouldstituteameansofarbitraryorunjustifiabledisatiorieswherethesamesprevail,uisedrestriiiohinginthisAgreementshallbestruedtopreveionorebyanygpartyofmeasures:

(a)oprotectpublicmorals;

(b)oprote,animalorplah;

(gtotheimportatioionsofgoldorsilver;

(d)osepliahlawsulationswhiotiheprovisionsofthisAgreement,ingthtoseheeofmoedunderparagraph4ofArtidArticleⅩⅦ,theproteofpatents,trademarksandchts,aioivepractices;

&isofprisonlabor;

(f)imposedfortheproteationaltreasuresofartistic,histicalvalue;

(g)relatingtotheservatioiblenaturalresourcesifsuchmeasuresaremadeeffewithrestriesticproduption;

(h)uakeninpursuanceofobligatioergoveralodityagreementwhistocriteriasubmittedtotheGPARTIESandnotdisapprovedbythemorwhichisitselfsosubmittedandnotsodisapproved;

(i)involviiosofdomesticmaterialsoeialquantitiesofsuchmaterialstoadindustryduringperiodswheiaterialsisheldbelowtheworldpriceaspartofagoverabilizationplasuchrestrisshalloiheexportsofortheproteaffordedtosuestidustry,andshallfromtheprovisionsofthisAgreemeonon-disation;

&ialtotheaordistributionofprodueralorlocalshortsupply;Providedthatanysuchmeasuresshallbetwiththepriallgpartiesareeoaableshareoftheiionalsupplyofsuchprodudthatanysuchmeasures,whitwiththeotherprovisionsoftheAgreementshallbedisuedassooionsgivihemhaveceasedtoexist。TheGPARTIESshallreviewthehissub-paragraphhan30June1960。

尽管第20条规定了众多的单项例外措施,但纵观GATTWTO的实践,成员方援用最多的还是(b)项、(d)项和(g)项的内容,因此本节仅对这三个条款进行讨论和说明。

二、公共健康例外条款——第20条(b)项的适用

第20条(b)项要求,成员方所采取的与WTO协议不一致的措施,只有在属于“为保护人类、动物或植物的生命所必需的措施”时,才能作为合法例外而无须承担违反WTO协议的责任。Panel在“美国精炼汽油和传统汽油标准案”(Ues-StandardsforReformulatedaionalGasoline)中明确提出了判断成员方能否援引第20条(b)项的三个标准:AsthepartyinvokiheUesboretheburdenofproofiingthattheimeasurescamewithinitsscope。ThePatheUesthereforehadtoestablishthefollowis:

(1)thatthepolirespeeasuresforwhichtheprovisionwasihintherangeofpoliciesdesige,animalorplah;

(2)thattheimeasuresforwhichtheexwasbeinginvokedwereofulfillthepolicyobjed

(3)thatthemeasuresliedinitywiththerequiremeroductoryclauseofArticleⅩⅩ。

(一)何谓“保护人类生命与健康”

在WTO实践中,试图援引本项例外的成员方应该提出证据证明存在有关的健康风险。在认定有关产品是否构成了人类生命或健康风险时,PaeBody一般都会听取专门性国际组织或非政府组织的意见。如在“泰国香烟进口限制和香烟国内税案”(ThailaionsonImportationofaaxesoes)中,Panel就采纳了世界卫生组织(WorldHealthanization)关于“吸烟有害健康”的结论,裁定泰国的相关措施属于“保护人类生命与健康”的措施;在“欧共体影响石棉及石棉产品的措施案”(Europeanunities-MeasuresAffegAsbestosaainingProduel和AppellateBody都听取了世界卫生组织和癌症国际研究机构的观点,认为石棉构成了对人类生命和健康的风险,并裁定欧共体的进口禁止措施符合“保护人类生命和健康”的目标。

(二)何谓“所必需的”

在GATT时期,“泰国香烟进口限制和香烟国内税案”的专家组认为,在不存在可合理地期望成员方采取的措施既能实现其健康政策目标,又与GATT基本义务相一致的替代措施,或不存在对GATT基本义务违反程度更低的措施时,成员方的措施才是“必需的”。在“欧共体影响石棉及石棉产品的措施案”中,上诉机构对“所必需的”进行了进一步的阐述:TheAppellateBodyedthatameasureis“necessary”withinthemeaningofGATTArticleⅩⅩ(b)“ifaivemeasurewhichaMembercouldreasooemployandwhiotihATTprovisionsisnotavailabletoit。”TheAppellateBodyinEC-Asbestosthensideredada'sclaimthatthePanelhaderroneouslyfoundthat“trolleduse”wasnotareasonablyavailablealterhemeasureatissue。Inthis,adaarguedthattheAppellateBodyitselfhadheldinUS-GasoliaivemeasurelyberuledoutifitisshowntobeimpossibletoimplemeeBodyrejeada&#umesanalysisbyaowledgingthat“administrativedifficulties”didnotre“reasonablyavailable”。“Welyagreewithadathataivemeasurewhichisimpossibletoimplementisnot‘reasonablyavailable’。Butwedohada&#ofeitherthepaorourreporties-GasoliedStates-Gasolihepanelheld,iaivemeasuredidobe‘reasonably’availablesimplybecausethealternativemeasureinvolvedadministrativediffiber。Thepanel'sfindingsonthispoiappealed,and,thus,wedidhisissueinthatcase。”[2]

紧接着,上诉机构援引其在“韩国影响鲜、冷冻牛肉进口措施案”(Korea-MeasuresAffegImportsofFresh,dFrozenBeef)中关于“所必需的”论述:IinKorea-Beef,weaddressedtheissueof‘y’uicleⅩⅩ(d)oftheGATT1994。Inthatappeal,wefoundthatthepanelwasfollowiahbythepaedStates-Se337oftheTariffActof1930:

ItwascleartothePaagpartyotjustifyameasureihaprovisionas‘necessary’intermsofArticleⅩⅩ(d)ifaivemeasurewhichitcouldreasooemployandwhiotihATTprovisionsisavailabletoit。Bythesametoken,incaseswhereameasuretwithATTprovisionsisnotreasonablyavailable,agpartyisbouhemeasuresreasonablyavailabletoit,thatwhitailstheleastdegreeofihATTprovisions。

&edinKorea-Beefthatohe‘weighingandbalangproprehehedeterminatioO-talternativemeasure’isreasonablyavailableistheextenttowhichthealternativemeasure‘tributestotherealizationoftheendpursued’。Inaddition,weobserved,inthatcase,that‘themorevitalorimportanttheosorvalues’pursued,theeasieritwouldbetoacecessary’measuresdesigoachievethoseends。Inthiscase,theobjectivepursuedbythemeasureisthepreservationofhumanlifeahroughtheeliminatioion,ofthewell-known,aehrisksposedbyasbestosfibers。Thevaluepursuedisbothvitalandimportadegree。[3]

由此可见,第20条(b)项中“所必需的”的含义需要根据该措施是否是“与WTO协议相一致或者有更少的不一致”这一标准来判断。而这一标准只是一个一般性的考虑,具体的判断还需要根据个案的情况来衡量。总的来说,旨在保护的“公共健康目标”越重要,措施越有助于实现所追求的目标,对进口产品产生的限制越低,就越容易被WTO争端解决机构接受为“所必需的”。[4]

三、遵守法律、法规的例外条款——第20条(d)项的适用

WTO上诉机构在2001年的“韩国影响鲜、冷冻牛肉进口措施案”中探讨了本项的适用问题。该案涉及韩国牛肉的双重零售制度是否给予进口牛肉不低于本国牛肉待遇的问题。这种双重零售制度规定,小商店不得同时经营进口牛肉和本地牛肉,大商店的同一部门不得同时经营这两种产品。在案件的审理过程中,韩国以第20条(d)项的规定作为抗辩,认为这种制度是为了遵循韩国国内的《消费者保护法》。对此,上诉机构认为:Forameasure,otherwiseihGATT1994,tobejustifiedprovisionallyunderparagraph(d)ofArticleⅩⅩ,twoelementsmustbeshown。First,themeasuremustbeoo‘sepliahlawsulationsthatarenotthemselvesihsomeprovisio1994。Seeasuremustbe‘osecuresupliance。AMemberwhoiicleⅩⅩ(d)asajustifihastheburdeingthatthesetworequireme。[5]

在第20条(d)项中,同样可以见到“所必需的”这一措辞。这一措辞与(b)项中“所必需的”有何不同?在实践中应该如何把握?上诉机构同样也在本案进行了阐述:

&hat,asusediofArticleⅩⅩ(d),thereachoftheword‘necessary’iswhidispensable’or‘ofabsolutey’or‘iable’。MeasuresensableorofabsoluteyoriosepliaainlyfulfiltherequirementsofArticleⅩⅩ(d)。Butothermeasures,too,mayfallwithiofthisex。Asusediheterm‘necessary’refers,ieofdegreesofohislies‘necessary’uoodas‘indispeheotherend,is‘akentomeanas‘makingatributionto’。Wesiderthata‘necessary’measureis,inthis,loifitlyclosertothepoleof‘ihaepoleofsimply‘makingatributionto’。

Inappraisiy’ofameasureiisusefultobeariinwhiecessary’isfoundihemeasureatstakehastobe‘oensurepliahlawsaions…ingthtoseheeof[lawful]moheproteofpatents,trademarksandchts,aioivepractices’。(emphasisadded)Clearly,ArticleⅩⅩ(d)issusceptibleofapplirespectofawidevarietyof‘lawsaions’tobeeseemstousthatatreatyierassessingameasureclaimedtobeosepliaO-tlawulationmay,inappropriatecases,takeintoattherelativeimportaheosorvaluesthatthelawulationtobeeeect。Themorevitalorimportantthoseosorvaluesare,theeasieritwouldbetoacecessary”ameasuredesignedasarument。

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