Text A Scientific Knowledge and Common Knowledge（第1页）

TextAStifiowledgeandonKnowledge

&Spencer

Pre-reading

&Spencer（1820-1903）wasanEnglishphilist，anthropologist，sociologist，aclassicalliberalpoliticaltheoristoftheViera。

Spencerdevelopedanall-embraofevolutionastheprogressivedevelopmentofthephysicalworld，biolanisms，thehumanmind，andhumandsocieties。Hewas“aitofevolutioeaboutevolutionbeforeDarwindid”。Duringhislifetimeheachievedtremendousauthority，mainlyinEnglishspeakingacademia。SpehesifamousEuropeaualinthegdecadesoftheury”，buthisinfluenedsharplyafter1900。

Speknownfortheexpression“survivalofthefittest”，whiedinPrinciplesofBiology（1864），afterreadingCharlesDarwin’sinofSpecies。

Thefollowingessayisafreressay“OntheGenesisofSce”。

Promptsf

1。WhatarethesimilaritiesaweeifiowledgeandordinaryknowledgeagtoSpencer?

2。Whatistherelationshipthatexistsbetweeifiowledgeandordinaryknowledge?

&herecaseswherescedisprovesouroarethey?

4。Whatarethecharacteristicsofstifiowledge?

5。Whatdothewords“ty”aeness”meaninParagraph7?

6。Howdoesstifiowledgedevelopinstages?

7。Whatisthediffereiveaivesyougivesomeexamples?

8。Howwouldyehispassage?

9。Whatisthegenerallogidtheanizatiohispassage?Workoutanideaflowcharttoillustratetheofthoughtsinthispassage。

[1]TherehaseverprevailedamongmehatstifiowledgediffersinnaturefromordinarykheGreeks，withwhomMathematics—literallythi—wasalonesideredasknowledgeproper1，thedistinusthavebeenstro;andithaseversiaihegeneralmind。Though，gthetrastbetweentheatsofsdthoseofdailyuhodiking，itisnthatsuchadistinhasbeeorisealittleabovetheonpoioseethatnosureallyexist:orthatatbest，itisbutasuperficialdistin。Thesamefacultiesareemployedinbothdinbothcasestheirmodeofoperationisfuhesame。

[2]Ifwesaythatsceisanizedknowledge，wearemetbythetruththatallknowledgeisanizedierree—thattheoionsofthehouseholdandthefieldpresupposefactscolligated2，inferen，resultsexpedthatthegeneralsuccessoftheseasprovesthedatabywhichtheywereguidedtohavebeetaisceisprevision—isaseeingbeforehand—isaknowinginwhattimes，plabinations，orsequences，specifiedphenomenawillbefouobligedtofessthatthedefinitiohatisutterlyfsordiion。Forexample，aowledgeofahis，asfarasitgoes，sistsinprevisions。Whenachildseesaandcolors，itknoutsoutitshanditwillhaveimpressioandroundness，andsmoothness;andifitbites，ataste。Asgeneralacewithsurrousisoflikenature—ismadeupoffagthem，sogroupedasthatanypartperceived，theexisteherfaitisforeseen。

[3]If，oncemore，wesaythatsceisexactprevisioillfailtoestablishthesupposeddiffereohatmuchofwhatweotexadthatsomeofit，asphysiology，everbeeexact;butwefimanyoftheprevisionsstitutingtheonstockalikeofwiseandignorahatanunsupportedbodywillfall;thatalighteddlewillgooutwheer;thaticewillmeltwhenthrowhese，andmaitothefamiliarpropertiesofthingshaveashighadegreeofaccuracyaspredisarecapableof。Itistruethattheresultspredicatedareeneralcharacter;butitisruethattheyarerigorouslycorrectasfarastheygo:andthisisallthatisrequisitetofulfillthedefinition。Thereisperfectatheanticipatedpheheaes;ahisbesaidofthehighestatsofthescesspeciallycharacterizedasexact。

[4]Seeingthusthattheassumeddistiweeifiowledgeandonklogicallyjustifiable;afeelihathoweverimpossibleitmaybetodrawalihetractitical;therearisesthequestion—Whatistherelationshipthatexistsbetweeialahisquestionmaybedrawrationsjustgiven。Onregthem，itwillbeobservedthatthoseportionsofordinaryknowledgewhichareidenticharacterwithstifiowledge，prehendonlysubinationsofphenomelyizable3bythesenses，andareofsimple，iure。Thatthesmokefromafirewhichsheislightingwillasdthatthefirewillpresentlyboilrevisionswhichtheservant-girlmakesequallywellwiththemostlearnedphysicist;theyareequally，equallyexactwithhis;buttheyareprevisiphenomenaintaiohatfollowvisiblyaelyaftertheiras—phenomenaofwhichtheisenorobscure—phenomenaredictedbythesimplestpossibleact。

[5]If，otheprevisionsstitutingwhatisonlyknowahemooneime;andwheakeopofamountainofkhemernwilldesdastatednumberofihepolesofagalvanicbatteryimmersedinwaterwillgiveoff，theoneaniheotheraninflaminggas，iio—weperceivethattherelatioofakindhabituallypreseoourseheydepehem，uponspebinationsofdthatihemthebetweesasisestablishedonlybyaeseriesofihebroaddistin，therefore，betweewoordersofkiure，butienessfromper。

[6]Ifweregardthetheirmostge，weseethatthelaborer，whotesihedge，describethepartiandcolorsthem;aronomer，who，havingcalculatedatransitofVenus，eate4theblateringonthesun’sdisc，asitearthroughthetelescope，ataspecifiedhour;doessentiallythesamething。Eaowsthatonfulfillies，heshallhaveapreceivedimpression—thatafteradefiionswilleagroupofsensationsofaforeknownkind。Thediffereinthefualcharaentalatheessoftheprevisionsaplishedbythem;butintheplexityoftheprocessesrequiredtoachievetheprevisions。Muoknowledgeis，asfarasitgorouslyprecise。Sotihispre;ottra。Whatthedo?Itreducesetothesamedegreeofpre。Thattywhichdirectpergivesusrespegdsequehesimplestandmostaccessiblekind，scegivesusrespegdsequenplexintheirdependenaccessibletoimmediateobservatiardedfromthispointofview，scemaybeextensioionsbymeans。

[7]Onfurthergthematter，however，itsbefeltthatthisdefiexpressthewholefact—thatinseparableasscemaybefromonknoletelyasthegapbetweeprevisionsofthedthemostreesofthenaturalphilosopherbyinterposingaseriesofprevisionsinwhiplexityinvolvedisgreaterahereisyetadifferewobeyondthatwhichisheredesdthisistrue。Butthediffereillnotsuablesustodrawtheassumedliion5。Itisadiffereweenonknowledgeaifiowledge;butbetweenthesuccessivephasesofsceitself，eitself—whicheverwechoosetocallit。Initsearlierphasesssoye;initslaterphasesitfurtherattainstopleteness。Webeginbydisgarelation:weendbydisgtherelation。Ourfirstatistoforetellthekindofphenomenonwhichwilloderspeditions:ourlastatistoforetellnototheamount。Or，toreducethepropositiontoitsmostdefiniteform—undevelopedsceisqualitativeprevision;developedstitativeprevision。

[8]Thiswillatooexpresstheremainingdistihelowerandthehigherstagesofpositivekhepredithatapieceofleadwilltakemoreforcetoliftthanapieceofwoodofequalsize，exhibitsty，buteness，ht。Thekiinwhiebodywillexceedtheotherisforeseen;butbywhichitwillexceed。Thereisqualitativeprevisiononly。Ohepredithatatastatedtimetwopartietswillbein;thatbymeansarmsiio，aknownforcewillraisejustsomanypounds;thattodeposeaspecifiedquantityofsulphateofiron6byateofsoda7willrequiresomanygraiiofe，notoureoftheeffectstobeproduagheroftheeffectsthemselves，oftheagenciesprodugthem，orofthedistaimeorspaceatwhichtheywillbeproduced。Thereisnotonlyqualitativebutquantitativeprevision。

[9]Andthisistheunexpresseddifferencewhichleadsustosiderordersofknoeciallystifitrastedwithknowledgeingeneral。“Arethephenomenameasurable?”isthetestwhiploy。Spaceismeasurable:hery。Fordspacearemeasureable:heics8。Time，fordspacearemeasureable:henamics9。Theiioereendtheprineosphere;aicsexisted。Wheerwasdevised，therearoseasceofheat，whichwasbeforeimpossible。Suchofoursensatioyetfoundmodesdinatesces。Wehavenosells;norhaveweoes。Wehaveasceoftherelationsofsoundsdifferinginpitch，becausewehavediscoveredawaytomeasurethem;butwehavenosdsiheirloudheirtimbre，becausewehavegotnomeasuresofloudimbre。

[10]Obviouslyitisthisreduoftheserepreseionsofmagnitude，whichgivestoanydivisionofksespeciallystificcharacter。inallymen’sknowledgeofweightsandforthesameastheirknowledgeofsmellsandtastesisnow—akegivenbytheuions;anditremaiilweighingisanddyers10wereied。Beforetherewerehlasses11andclepsydras12，mostphenomenacouldbeestimatedastotheirdurationsandintervals，witherprethandegreesofhardnessbeestimatedbythefiilathermometricscalewastrived13，mesrespegrelativeamouoodoingwiththeirpresesrespegrelativeamountsofsound。Andasiialstages，withnoaidstoobservation，hestparisonsofade，andomarkeddiffereisobviousthatosimplelawsofdependencecouldbeased—onlythoselawswhigunplicatedwithothers，andnotdisturbedintheirmaions，requirediesofobservatiohem。Wheappearsnotonlythatinproportionasknowledgebeesquasprevisioeaswellas，butthatuntilitsassumptionofaquaeritisnecessarilyedtothemostelemeions。

[11]Moreoveritistoberemarkedthatwhile，ontheonehand，wediscoverthelawsofthegreaterproportionofphenomenaonlybyiiatively;oherhaendtherangeofourquantitativeprevisionsonlyasfastaswedetectthelawsoftheresultswepredict。Forclearlytheabilitytospecifythemagnitudeofaresultiodirectmeasurementimpliesksmodeofdepehingwhibemeasured，impliesthatwekicularfactdealtwithtobeaninstane。Thustheextenttowhichourquantitativeprevisionshavebeenaiohedepthtowhiowledgereathatdiredhere，asaofthesamefact，wemayfurtherobservethataswepassfromqualitativetoquantitativeprevision，wepassfrominductivescetodeductivescewhilepurelyinductiveispurelyqualitative;wheniitativeitusuallysistsofpartindu，partdeduditbeesaccuratelyquantitativeonlywhenwhollydeductive。Wedohededudthequantitativearesive，forthereismalymuchdeduthatisqualitativeoallquantitativeprevisionisreacheddeductively;andthatindualyqualitativeprevision。

[12]Still，however，itmustnotbesupposedthatthesedistinableustoseparateordinaryknowledgefromsce，muchastheyseemtodoso。Whiletheyshowinwhatsiststhebroadtrastbetweeremeformsofthetwo，theyyetleadustialidentity;andohediffereobeoneofdegreeonly。For，oheoivekosomeextentquantitative;seeingthattheamountoftheforeseeisknownwithiais。Aherhaquantitativeprevisioreachtheexacttruth，butonlyaverynearapproximationtoit。Withoutclocksthesavageknowsthatthedayislohesummerthaer;withoutscalesheknowsthatstohais，hefresultsthattheiramouhese，ahose－heknowsaboutwhattheywillbe。And，withhismostdelistrumentsaecals，allthatthemanofsdo，istoreducethediffereheforeseeualresultstoanunimportantquantity。

[13]Moreover，itmustbeborneinmindnotonlythatallthescesarequalitativeistages，—notonlythatsomeofthem，asChemistry，havebutretlyreachedthequaage—butthatthemostadvanceshaveattaiheirpreseerminingquapresenttothesedirectlymeasurable，byaslowproprovemehroughthousahatsdthekheunculturedarealikeiureoftheirprevisioheydifferiheypossessaperfe，thoughthisisimmehelasttha;aioheotherhasbeenthroughaseriesofstepsbywhichtheimperfehasbeeiherainuallywider。

Notes